Definition and Scope of Biological Control 

Since the term "biological control" was first used by Harry S. Smith in 1919, a lot of sense given to that term. Smith initially gave understanding to the biological control as the use of natural enemies are introduced and manipulated from the local natural enemies to control insect pests. From a practical standpoint, biological control can be divided into:

1) Introductions of natural enemies that are not pests in infested areas
2) The increase artificially the number of individuals who have no natural enemies in the area that is infested with pests that manipulate existing natural enemies can lead to higher mortality of the pest. Understanding the natural control provided by Smith was later extended by P. de Bach in 1964 to distinguish the natural control and biological control:
1) Control is an attempt to maintain a natural population fluctuation of organisms in the upper and lower limits for a specified period of time through the influence of abiotic and biotic environmental factors

2) biological control is the ability of predators, parasitoids, and pathogens in maintaining another organism dense population is lower than the dense population in a state without the presence of predators, parasitoids, or pathogens.

De Bach distinguish the natural control of biological control, but it should be noted that:
1) No clear distinction between the influence of biotic environmental factors in natural control of the influence of predators, parasitoids, or parasites in biological control
2) the natural control by de Bach also includes the influence of abiotic environmental factors
In 1962, Bosch and his colleagues modified the understanding of natural control and biological control de Bach stated to be:

1) a natural biological control (natural biological control) as a control that occurs without human intervention.

2) biological control applied (applied biological control) as the manipulation of natural enemies by man to control pests.

Bosch and his colleagues distinguish between three categories of biological control applied as follows:

1) Classical biological control through the introduction of natural enemies to control pests

2) Augmentation of natural enemies through efforts to increase the population or the beneficial effects provided by natural enemies

3) Conservation of natural enemies through deliberate efforts to protect and maintain populations of natural enemies.

In subsequent developments, the notion of biological control was expanded to include factors such as plant resistance, autosterilisasi, genetic manipulation, control of cultivation, and even the use of pesticides such third-generation insect growth regulators. But in the further development, the broad sense is abandoned and re-used is a sense according to Bosch and his colleagues to change the term to control a natural biological control of natural (natural control) and biological control applied to biological control (biological control). Weeden and colleagues from Cornell University, USA, for example, provide biological control organism such as the use of predators, parasitoids, and pathogens involving human intervention to control pests, diseases and weeds. Michigan State University, U.S., providing approximately the same sense, the human efforts to manipulate the natural enemies comprising predators, parasitoids, pathogens, and competitors pests (pest competitor) or the resources to support the pest management in the broad sense

In 1987, the Commission on Science, engineering, and Public Policy (the Committee on Science, Engineering and Public Policy, COSEPUP) of the U.S. Institute of Sciences, Institute for the U.S. engineering and the U.S. Institute of Medicine recommends the use of broad definitions of biological control as the use of a natural organism or the engineering, gene, or genes modified to reduce the negative impacts caused by pest organisms, and the positive impact caused by the beneficial organisms such as plants, forest trees, livestock, and other beneficial insects and organisms. This expanded definition was rejected by the Division of Biological Control of UCB as it can not provide a clear distinction with other pest control methods in terms of controlling the main characteristics that are self-sustaining without having to be input continuously and depends dense population in the mechanism controlling the pest. Division of Biological Control of UCB to maintain the sense of biological control as presented by DeBach as the performance of parasitoids, predators, or pathogens in suppressing dense populations of other organisms in a lesser degree than the absence of natural enemies.

Understanding of biological control that is used today, and easy to remember is that given by the Midwest Institute for Biological Control, the U.S., which define biological control as the three groups, each consisting of three elements (three sets of three). The third group is intended includes the "who" (WHO), the natural enemies that are used as a control agent, "what" (what), the purpose of biological control, and "how" (how), that is the way of natural enemies used to achieve the control objectives biodiversity. Groups "who" made up of elements of predators, parasitoids, and pathogens, the "what" consists of elements of the reduction, prevention, and delay, and the "how" consists of elements of importation, augmentation, and conservation. As will be described in subsequent chapters, the notion of three sets of three, of course, is not set in stone, but just to make it easier to remember. The "what" was not only composed of the elements of predators, parasitoids, and pathogens, but also eating weeds (weed feeders) in the biological control of weeds and antagonists in biological control of plant diseases.

Scope of Biological Control Course Materials

Before studying in detail the biological control as will be described in subsequent chapters, it first needs to obtain a glimpse (overview) on biological control. A glimpse is needed as a guide for linking one chapter to another chapter, so by studying in detail chapter by chapter, a complete picture of biological control is becoming blurred.

Biological control will be discussed in subsequent chapters is basically a material that is presented to provide basic competencies or the introduction of biological control of insect pests, pathogens, and weeds of agriculture in the context as a component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). For ease of understanding and maintaining linkages between topics, the material will be presented in the chapters that are grouped into sections:
1) Introduction and the basics of ecology, which contains chapters which will outline the history and understanding of biological control, the basics of population dynamics, the dynamics of predator-prey interactions and parasitoid-host interactions, and dynamics of pathogen-host interactions.

2) Introduction of Biological Control Agents which contains chapters which will outline the introduction of predators, parasitoid introduction, the introduction of pathogens and antagonists, as well as the introduction of weed eaters.

3) Development and application of biological control that contains the chapters outline the procedures that will be the development of classical biological control, procedure development of biological pesticides, conservation of natural enemies procedures, as well as implementation and evaluation of biological control.

As described in the definition and scope of biological control, biological control is a human attempt at manipulating natural enemies to control pests in a broad sense. This means that biological control is an act of manipulation of ecosystems in relation to the interaction between the populations of natural enemies in the target pest population. Such interactions need to be understood as a basis for understanding the workings of biological control as a whole.
Natural enemies include all living creatures that take advantage of others to ensure its survival. Natural controls relating to the role of natural enemies in suppressing pest populations in a broad sense as it is without human intervention. The same natural enemies who deliberately through importation, augmentation, and conservation used to control pests is called biological control agents (biological control agent). In the text books in Indonesian language on biological control, biological control agent Indonesianized term to "biological control agents". However pengindonesiaan English term "agent" to "agents" are not in accordance with the rules of the establishment of the term in the Indonesian language ("president" Indonesianized become "president" and not "presidensia", "antagonist" to be "antagonistic" and not "antagonisia"). The term "agency" is also inaccurate because in English the word "agency" has different meanings to the word "agent" as used in terms of biological control agents. Therefore, the next term will be used to refer to the natural enemies that are used intentionally to control pests in a broad sense is a biological control agent.

As described in the history of biological control, biological control is first used against animal pests. In animal pest control, control agents are commonly used consists of predators, parasitoids, and pathogens so that the components of the "what" in the sense of biological control provided by the Midwest Institute for Biological Control only consists of three elements. Now the biological control has been conducted on animal pests, plant diseases, and weeds so that three elements must be expanded with the antagonists and eating weeds (weed feeder). With a biological control that now includes the control of animal pests, plant diseases, and weeds, biological control agents consist of the following elements:
1) Predator, the living creatures that eat other living things smaller or weaker than himself. Other creatures are eaten by a predator called the prey (prey) and pemakanannya process called predation.

2) parasitoids, parasitic creatures that live in or on the surface of the body and eventually cause the death of the host creature. Other being boarded parasitoid called host (the host) and the interaction process is called parasitasi.

3) Pathogens, namely microscopic parasitic organism living in or on the surface of the body and eventually cause the death of another living creature that attacked. Other being attacked by pathogens called host (the host).

4) antagonist, which is a microscopic organism that can cause unfavorable effects for other living beings through physical damage, parasitasi, secretion of antibiotics, and other forms of inhibition such as competition for nutrients and growing space.
5) weed eater, weed eater that is living but not mamakan other useful plants.
In the textbooks of biological control, often used the term "parasite" to refer to the parasitoid. In this case note that the use of parasites only to refer to the parasitoid can be confusing because there are parasites that are pathogenic or even antagonistic. The term "pathogen" include pathogen in biological control of pest animals, to plant disease-causing pathogens, and to weed.

Given the biological control is done by utilizing other living creatures to control pests in a broad sense so many people consider biological control as a method of control that once done it will go on by itself so that it costs less. In fact, cheaper in terms of biological control is very relative and contextual.

Nevertheless, biological control does have a number of advantages compared with other control methods. The advantages are as follows:

1) On a scale of application by growers, biological control (especially classical biological control) is a relatively inexpensive method of control. However, the development of classical biological control in general, requires a fee and other resources in a very large number.
2) Control of biological control methods that are safe for the environment and human health. Biological control is safe for the environment because it is not harmful to living things instead of the target so as to avoid pests and pest resurgensi second. Biological control is safe for human health because the organism is used instead of a living being harmful to human health.
3) do not encourage biological control of pests, plant disease pathogens, and weeds that are resistant as well as can occur in chemical control.

In addition to these advantages, biological control also has limitations. Important limitations are as follows:

1) biological control is not possible to eradicate the target pest for the survival of biological control agents, particularly the classical biological control, depending on the availability of the target pests as food for their survival

2) The effectiveness of biological control generally take a long time and is relative in terms of the economic threshold should be set first.

3) Development of biological control is a job that requires a large resource support in the form of expertise, facilities, funds, and without any guarantee of success.
Modern biological control is one control method that is still new reltif. As a control method that is relatively new, its application often face many obstacles, both technical and non-technical. But as a relatively new method, a biological control method of controlling a much discussed and widely available resources on the internet. Almost all universities in the U.S. provide specific sites on biological control, as well as sites provided by the organization of biological control. Internet sites can be utilized as a source of additional information to better understand everything that is related to biological control

History of Biological Control
 

History of biological control has actually started long before biological control is defined sense. Egypt in 2000 BC communities have kept cats to control mice that invade their crops. In China, ants Oecophylla smaragdina has been used for control of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera pests on citrus cultivation since 324 BC. The way is still used in northern Myanmar until the 1950's. At present, biological control has been much progress, but not without experiencing high tide and low tide.
In its development until today, the history of biological control can devided into three periods as follows:
1) the initial period, since the use of a cat to catch mice by the Ancient Egyptians until around 1887.
2) The period of the middle, since the implementation of biological control program using the beetle vedalia (Rodolia cardinalis) to control fleas Icerya purchasi scales on citrus in California in 1888 to 1955.
3) the modern period, since 1955, which is characterized by the design of biological control programs are carefully until now.
That biological control was first exploited predator. Cat (Felis Catus) are utilized by the Ancient Egyptians, ant (Oecophyla smaragdina) by the Chinese, and then Acridotheres trictis parrot is being introduced from India to Mauritius to control locusts, red wanderer Nomadacris septemfasciata in 1770, it is a predator. Predator was first successfully used to control pests is widely pentatomid Picomerus bidens to control bedbugs Cimex lectularius in Europe in 1776.
New parasitoid is known in the late sixteenth century. In 1602, U. Aldrovandi has published his observations on Apanteles glomeratus cocoons attached to the body of Pieris brassicae larvae, but makes the mistake of stating that the eggs of insect cocoons. In 1662, Johannes Goedaert publish his book, Metamorphosis et Historia Naturalis Insectorum, which contains many pictures of parasitoids and mentioned that the small flies out of the pupa of a butterfly. The correct interpretation of the publication Goedaert given by Martin Lister, a British physician, in a letter published in The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London published 1670-71 by stating that the flies that come out of the pupa is the offspring of flies that lay their eggs ikneumonid in the larvae of P. brassicae. However, the person who first gives a very clear explanation of the phenomenon of parasitism is a Dutch microbiologist, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, through a letter to The Royal Society which was later published in the Philosophical Transactions, published in 1701. In the publication, van Leeuwenhoek clearly outlines the insects - which can then be determined as Aphidius ribis - the memarasit Cryptomyzus ribis. Nevertheless, the first person interprets this phenomenon as parasitism is Vallisnieri in 1706.
By 1800, Erasmus Darwin describes the role of predators and parasitoids in controlling pest insect populations. A German national, Hartig, advocated the collection of parasitoid flies terparasitasi for mass release in 1827. A decade later, an Austrian national, Kollar, introduced the concept of natural control (natural control). From 1837 until 1852, the other a German, Ratzeburg, conducts research on forest insects and their parasites and publish ichneumon-Insekten der Forst, but did not consider necessary augmentative release to control forest insect pests.
In 1856, Asa Fitch from the state of New York, recommends import of European parasitoids to control Contarinia tritici that attack wheat. In 1860, the parasite ordered but never received in the United States.
At the same time, Benjamin Walsh of the state of Illinois to import natural enemies to control exotic pests in there, but failed. However, Walsh was able to persuade Charles V. Riley in the state of Misouri, which in 1870 successfully used to control Conotrachelus nenuphar parasitoid. In 1871, LeBaron infested apple tree branches moving insects that diparasitasi Aphytis mytilaspidis from Galena to Geneva in the state of Illinois. Riley sends predator mites, Tyroglyphus phylloxerae, to France for the control of Phylloxera, Daktulosphaira vitifolii, in orange. Mites had settled in France, but did not give satisfactory control results. Cross-country shipment of insect predators first occurred in 1874, when Coccinella undecimpunctata sent from England to New Zealand and had established there.
Cross-country shipments of parasitoids occurred in 1882, when Trichogramma sp. shipped from the United States to control lepidoptera pests in Canada, but the parasitoid inter-continental delivery occurred in 1883 when the USDA import Apanteles glomeratus of England to control P. rapae in Washington DC, Iowa, Nebraska, and Misouri.
Silkworm disease was unknown in the eighteenth century, when the bee disease has been known by the Romans and the Greeks long before. Vallisnieri was the first to call muscardine on silkworm disease, but the discovery of the insect pathogenic fungus as had happened in 1726 when de Réaumur create illustrations Cordyceps fungus that infects insects noktuid.
The first experimental evidence of the disease in insects is given by Agustino Bassi who in 1837 successfully demonstrated the fungus Beauveria bassiana as a cause of disease in silkworms muscardine. On the basis of these studies, Basi was the first to advocate the use of microbes to control insect pests. Then, in 1874, Louis Pasteur suggested the use of microbes to control Phylloxera on grapes in France. But both these recommendations are not followed up on the field. In 1879, Elie Metchnikoff published research results on the use of Metarrhizium Anisopilia austriaca anisopliae to control, an important pest on cereal crops in the area of ​​Odessa, Russia, to conclude that M. anisopliae, when it can be mass produced and deployed in the field, able to control A. austriaca. Based on these results Metchnikoff, M. anisopliae and then mass produced in Ukraine in 1884 and used to control Cleonus punctiventris on sugar beet. New biological control of weeds is recommended even in 1855, when, after observing that the weed from Europe on pasture in the state of New York was not attacked by insects that are there, Asa Fitch recommends importing insects that attack the weeds from the place of origin.
New weed biological control began in 1863, when Dactylopius ceylonicus spread from North India to South India to control the cactus Opuntia vulgaris. Once imported into Sri Lanka, in 1865 succeeded in controlling the insect cactus O. vulgaris in large areas there.
The phenomenon of biological control is alleged to have used by the Aztecs in 1519 to control plant pathogens in aquaculture chinampas (floating island) in the lakes that surround their settlements in Tenochtitlán, now Mexico City. On floating islands are thought to develop Trichoderma, Pseudomonas, and are antagonistic to the pathogen Fusarium land dwellers.
In 1874, W. Robert found that scours Penicillium spp. can inhibit the growth of new bacteria and in 1928 Sir Alexander Fleming was able to isolate penicillin as an antibiotic. Since then, various other antibiotics were isolated, generally of microbial saprofitik.
Modern period in the history of biological control began when CV Riley began to control cottony cushion scale biological, Icerya purchasi, an important pest of citrus in California. This pest was first entered California in Menlo Park at around 1868 and quickly became an important pest that threatens citrus cultivation started in the state. Riley thought the pest came from Australia, so in 1888, he sent Albert Koebele to explore the natural enemies of pests are there. Koebele then sends the parasitoid Diptera 12 000 individuals and 129 individuals Cryptochaetum iceryae vedalia Rodolia cardinalis beetle. C. iceryae managed to control I. purchasi in the interior, while R. cardinalis on the coast of California. The success of the encourages Riley Koebele sent back to Australia to explore the parasite to other pests. Upon his return from Australia in 1889, Koebele was dismissed from his job and in 1893 moved to Hawaii and worked for. The success of biological control of I. Riley delivers purchasi regarded as the father of modern biological control. But along with the excesses of attention in biological control, pest control methods other less attention in California. In 1894, L.O. Howard replaced Riley as Head of Entomology Division of USDA and because of problems of underdevelopment of the other control methods cause less supportive of the view of biological control. Nevertheless, in 1899 George Compere was appointed as a civil servant assigned to the first specific biological control work. He worked until 1910 and managed to send a lot of beneficial insects into California from around the world.
His son, Harold Comepere also dedicated his life in the field of biological control in California. In 1911, Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner managed to find the cause of the deadly disease in the Mediterranean flour moth. In 1913, Harry Scott Smith was appointed as head of state in Sacramento Insectarium. USDA biological control lab built in France in 1919. UK firm to build the Laboratory of Entomology Farnham House in 1927 which has since 1928 led by WR Thompson. In 1923, biological control activities in the California Citrus Research Station is centered at the Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture and the University of California at Riverside (UCR). At UCR, biological control work originally done at the Beneficial Insects Research Division and then in 1947, after the 1945 Smith opened a similar facility in Albany at the University of California at Berkeley (UCB), is converted into the Division of Biological Control by Smith as Head of Division . Under the leadership of Smith, incorporated Chrysolina beetles from Australia to control weeds that marked the beginning of Klamath weed biological control in California in 1944. At UCB, Edward Steinhaus open lab and make the first insect pathology curriculum in 1947. Then he moved to the University of Califonia at Irvine (UCI) and develop a similar program there until the sudden death in 1968. Biological Control Section at the UCR changed to the Department of Biological Control in 1954. The department is a center for education and research of biological control is very famous in the 1962's, particularly in the field of classical biological control.
After moving to Hawaii, in 1902 Koebele went to Mexico and Central America to explore insects on Lantana camara fitofag under the leadership of RCL Perkins. In 1904, Perkins was appointed as head of Sugarcane Leafhopper Project (1904-1920). Frederick Muir, who was hired after falling ill Koebele, in 1920 managed to find a very effective predator, Tytthus (= Cyrtorhinus) mundulus, in Queensland, Australia.
World War II led to the cessation of development of biological control. Having found a cheap synthetic insecticides during World War II, research entomologists turned sharply to the control of chemical and biological control research is becoming obsolete. Even at the urging professors background chemical control, biological control status for the department at UCR in 1969 was lowered to the division and in 1989, the division was even abolished. At UCB, also the status of biological control division at the Department of Entomology, but the professor there succeeded in obtaining a guarantee to work with minimum intervention by the department. Biological control regained attention in the United States after the chemical control of pests shown to cause various problems, health, and environment.
Outside the United States, Office of the Kingdom of parasites in Trinidad, West Indies, in 1947 changed to the Bureau of the Commonwealth for Biological Control and in 1951 again changed to the Commonwealth Institute for Biological Control (Commonwealth Institute for Biological Control, CIBC). In 1955, established Commission Internationale de Lutte Biologique Enemis les des Cultures (CILB) in Zurich, Switzerland in 1962 changed its name to the Organisation Internationale de Lutte Biologique contre les les Animaux et Plantes Nuisibles better known as the International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) .
Biological control of plant pathogens also developed during the medieval period to modern, especially after the nineteenth century. In 1921, Hartley found that 30% of the seeds that grow in sterile soil and then inoculated with a mixture of Pythium damping debaryanum experience sprouts, whereas when inoculated with a mixture of P. debaryanum with Phoma, Chaetomium, Rhizopus, Trichoderma, Aspergillus, Rosellinia, and Penicillium, fall germination dropped to 16.9%. Sanford and Broadfoot in 1931 first used the term biological control of plant pathogens to control, after the previous term was first used by the HS Smith in 1919 to control insect pests. During 1931-1941, found that Trichoderma viride Weindling antagonistic against pathogenic soil inhabitants and successfully isolated from T. viridin viride and Gliocladium virens gliotoksin of which is active against Rhizoctonia solani. In 1933, Reinking and Manns introduced the concept of suppressive for clay soil that is not occupied by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense, the cause of Panama disease in bananas. Suppressive soil is concerned with microbial antagonists because, in 1968 Gerlagh successfully demonstrated the suppressive soil to be conducive to the development of Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici in wheat.